Questions 'n' Answers
- What is subliminal advertising?
- What is semi-subliminal advertising?
- How common is the use of semi-subliminal
advertising techniques?
- Who uses semi-subliminal advertising techniques?
- Where can I find more information about the
psychology of visual perception?
- What can I do to resist the influence of
semi-subliminal advertising?
- How does semi-subliminal advertising work?
- Who is influenced by semi-subliminal advertising?
- Are semi-subliminal images simply figments
of the imagination?
- Why would advertisers embed images in adverts
if they are not noticed?
- How can I detect semi-subliminal images?
- Are there any books on the subject of semi-subliminal
advertising?
- What is the difference between manipulative advertising
and semi-subliminal advertising?
- What is manipulative advertising?
- Is semi-subliminal and manipulative advertising
unethical?
- What is product placement?
- What is the difference between seeing and perception?
- What is the academic definition of subliminal
perception?
- How effective is semi-subliminal advertising?
- Where does product placement fit into discussions
of subliminal advertising?
For additional information see the Imagination
and
Psychology pages.

Answers
1. What is subliminal
advertising?
Subliminal advertising is the term
that has been used for the past three or four decades for the type
of advertising illustrated on this site. However, it is an inaccurate
term. Subliminal actually means 'below the level of'. When used in
conjunction with advertising i.e. subliminal advertising, it ought
literally to refer to advertising that is presented below the level
at which the visual, olfactory or auditory senses can detect sensory
input and lead to conscious recognition of the stimuli. To use the
term subliminal to refer to the type of advertising in the books of
Wilson Key and the present web site is therefore misleading - all
of the secondary images/messages in the ads can be perceived and thus
must, by definition, be above the sensory threshold.
Numerous other meanings have been
given to the term subliminal over the years e.g. beyond attention,
information that is unconsciously attended to, etc. But, in essence,
the core meaning is still largely associated with the type of advertising
illustrated on this site. For an example of the type of debate that
took place some decades ago see the page that includes some classic
(and misleading) AAAA
and Seagram's ads. They disparage
individuals who criticize advertising agencies and their clients for
producing subliminal ads but hypocritically can be seen to have
used exactly the same techniques
One can, of course, draw a distinction
between ads presented in print and those viewed using electronic media
such as film, video, DVD and CD, or the Internet. Experiments involving
what might be best considered as truly subliminal messages or images
have almost invariably been carried out using tachistoscopes or, more
recently, computers. In each case these devices present images or
messages very faintly or for a very brief period of time. A simple
example can be found in the banner heading for the pages on this site.
Embedded in the centre of the banner, 'hidden' among the repeated
presentations of the word 'semi', can be found a brief presentation
of the word 'almost'. Although this example is perceptible, tachistocopic
presentations of stimuli can be truly subliminal, as the images can
be presented at levels of illumination well below the limits of visual
perception or for extremely short periods of time, again too short
for visual perception to occur. Ads in print, such as those illustrated
on this site, do not have the same characteristics. The imagery is
visible, although perceived with difficulty, and can be viewed for
a considerable period of time - as long as a viewer wishes to look,
in fact. They are not subliminal.
[ For a link to a site offering further
information about tachistoscope
usage in research click here When viewing this page note that
the comments regarding subliminal advertising take the 'party line'
and do not reflect 'subliminal' advertising practice. ]
The nature of the visual stimuli presented
in printed media and in electronic media is markedly different from
tachistoscope and computer presentations because of the temporal element.
In addition, there are other differences involving context. Experimental
presentations using electronic devices almost invariably use single
images or short messages with little bearing on everyday life. Yet
it is conclusions based on such one-off studies that dominate the
professional literature today. In contrast, printed ads present semi-subliminal
images or marginally perceptible messages within a complex of meaningful
imagery. Because of its complexity, the ad, overall i.e. principle
imagery plus embedded material, is likely to be related to emotions
and meaningful activities even if the 'subliminal' material embedded
within the ad is not.
Ads on film, TV, and other mass media
can attempt to make use of the subliminal presentation techniques
used in experiments. However, although they can attempt to implement
the techniques, they cannot present truly subliminal images/messages.
This is because each form of electronic media has a built in technical
limitation e.g. the number of frames presented each second. These
prevent the presentation of images dropping below the visual threshold.
This means any attentive viewer can note the insertion of such images.
Recent cases of note include the insertion of frames into a French
presidential political broadcast and various TV commercials. The most
recent report involves the campaigning of one of the U.S.
presidential candidates in Sept., 2000.
The emphasis in the Subliminal Worldsite
is on the type of print ads first discussed by Wilson Key in his books
on the subject. His illustrations and those ads illustrated on this
site all contain images that can be seen - thought sometime with difficulty.
But, so long as the manipulative elements of these ads can be perceived
at more than chance level i.e. 50% of the time, they cannot be considered
subliminal. It is more appropriate to call them semi-subliminal ads
or, if you wish to be more technical, marginally perceptible images.
Athough semi-subliminal ads contain
images that can be seen, the crucial aspects of the ads are still
often difficult to perceive (see below for the difference between
perception and seeing). A more appropriate term would, in fact, be
the technical term just noted i.e. marginally perceptible. However
this is a rather heavyweight technical term. In the interests of plain
speaking and ease of understanding the term semi-subliminal will be
used throughout this site to refer to such ads.
*Truly subliminal advertising
may exist. But if it does, only those who produce it will know. Although
unlikely to be in use at present (see below*) it is possible that
the use of truly subliminal advertising may develop in future as technology
develops. NASA, for example, has reported the development of computer
programmes that send computer users subliminal messages to keep them
alert. Other less acceptable goals involving goods and services can
easily be envisaged.
The reason the author thinks it unlikely
that subliminal advertising is widely used by commercial concerns
at present is as follows. Those companies most likely to make use
of any means at their disposal to promote their products, whether
ethical or not, whether in breach of legislation or not, are the major
US and International tobacco companies. They already make assiduous
use of semi-subliminal advertising. If truly subliminal advertising
served their aims equally as well as semi-subliminal advertising,
or was more effective, then one could bet they would not trouble to
use semi-subliminal advertising because of the potential problems
to their image when some researcher, such as the author, raises public
awareness of the issue.
But,
on the other hand, perhaps they make use of both techniques.
Are there any ex-employees or curent
employees of Philip Morris, R.J.Reynolds, BAT or their advertising
agencies out there who can shed some light on this issue? Add you
comments on the guest pages or contact
the author by any of the other means offered on this site.


2. What is semi-subliminal
advertising and how does it differ from subliminal advertising?
Semi-subliminal advertising is the
most easily remembered term that can be applied to the type of advertising
that has previously and erroneously been labelled as subliminal advertising.
See the Answer to question number one (above) for a more extensive
answer.
In short, semi-subliminal advertising
can be perceived (though sometimes with some difficulty). By definition,
one should not be able to perceive subliminal messages. The only exception
would be when images are barely perceptible and presented at the borderline
of perceptual ability. One might then expect to perceive such messages
50% of the time (but again with difficulty).
Thus, the ads discussed on this site
are semi-subliminal and not subliminal in nature.


3. How common is the use of semi-subliminal
advertising?
This is a difficult question to give an answer
to. No-one has ever carried out a systematic study of semi-subliminal
advertising. To produce an accurate figure would require
a study of a vast amount of advertising over a set period of time
such as a year. Even reducing the amount of work involved
by selecting best selling magazines would still create difficulties
due to the variability in the ability of individuals to recognize
secondary imagery. Observers would need to be trained
to adhere to rigid and consistent standards with a high level of agreement
between observers. This is difficult to achieve but not
impossible. To datel, however, no-one has carried out such a survey.
Additionally, very few individuals have taken the trouble to catalogue
examples of semi-subliminal ads. This site, and that at poleshift.org
are the only ones that the author is aware of, that offer a range
of examples.
Wilson Key and various other American observers
claim widespread use of semi-subliminal advertising (remember, they
called it subliminal advertising). However these are simply
subjective judgements that are most likely wrong, since they draw
upon experiences that have been strongly influenced by attempts to
recognize unethical advertising. The author's work involved
collecting back issues of magainzes covering a period of ten years.
Examination of full page ads and double page spreads would seem to
indicate that only a relatively small percentage of such ads in the
UK contain semi-subliminal images or messages. At best (or worst,
depending upon one's viewpoint), only one or two such ads can be found
per hundred ads - but this is probably an overestimate.
However, with adverts for products such as cigarettes and alcoholic
drinks, toiletries and certain other types of goods, secondary imagery is much more common. With some products one in
two ads contain secondary imagery/messages and with certain
cigarette brands perhaps every single ad in recent years has contained
some semi-subliminal message. The author cannot claim to be
able to detect every instance, even when viewing ads for products
that are consistently advertised using semi-subliminal content.
The products associated with the greatest
use of secondary imagery tend to share one key characteristic.
They can usually only be distinguished one from the other by brand
names. The products, in other words, contain essentially the same
ingredients and fulfil the same functions. Companies and their
advertising agencies seem willing to use every technique possible
in attempts to differentiate these otherwise indistinguishable and
often inessential products - including unethical techniques.
The ads illustrated on this site have been
selected to provide variety and interest. They thus draw upon a wide
range of subjects rather than represent the distribution of usage
of semi-subliminal content. If the ads had been selected
on a proportional basis, with the number of ads illustrated related
to the number devoted to specific products, then these web pages would
have been markedly different and less visually interesting.
Focusing on specific product ranges requires the type of analysis
in detail and commentary that is best presented in book form.
The author has a number of books in preparation and interested viewers
will find additional information on the page Sexy,
Subliminal and Deadly?: The Psychology of Manipulative Advertising
when it is published.


4. Who uses semi-subliminal advertising
techniques?
At one time or another many agencies and companies
have made use of semi-subliminal techniques. However,
it is notable that the most consistent use - and presumably also the
most effective use - is associated with large, multinational, companies
and corporations. They use the techniques to promote products that
are either addictive, inessential and/or indistinguishable from those
of their competitors, except in terms of branding and advertising.
This pattern of use would seem to indicate
two possibilities, neither of which is incompatible with the other.
Either it is costly to make use of semi-subliminal techniques or,
if they are to be effective, such ads must be used consistently over
long periods of time. Given that it is now relatively
easy to produce secondary imagery using computer graphics it
would seem as though the second factor is most important. It thus
seems reasonable to conclude that semi-subliminal techniques prove
cost effective to the companies concerned.
However, consumers can sleep easily in their
beds knowing that such techniques will never suffice to persuade or
influence them to purchase goods, except possibly as a factor influencing
impulse decision making when no particular preference exists.
Taking a long term view, it would seem as though, in most circumstances,
semi-subliminal techniques may provide the additional 'grain of sand'
that could tip the balance when consumers are uncertain about which
of two products to choose.
However, where young children are concerned,
exposure to ads containing semi-subliminal images may also be a factor
that reinforces peer group pressure where heavily advertised products
such as cigarettes are concerned.
Viewers should consider such issues after
viewing the various ads illustrated on these pages, those concerning
cigarette ads in particular. They should then consider whether they
wish to take any action such as complaints to the ASA, IPA, AAAA or
other bodies or asking their elected representatives to address the
matter.


5. Where can I find more information
about the psychology of visual perception and cognitive decision making?
To underpin an understanding of secondary imagery
as used in advertising and art requires an understanding of psychological
processes. The most important are those concerning perception but
other areas of research including attention, memory, emotions and
attributions are also relevant. Virtually any standard psychology
textbook will contain basic introductory information on visual perception,
and cognitive decision making. Attitudes and attributions are addressed
in Social Psychology textbooks whilst emotions tend to be addressed
by psychologists from a number of specialisms. The section of the
Bibliography devoted to psychology lists
a selection of recent titles in these subjects. The
Psychology pages offer examples of visual illusions and other
topics relevant to an apprectiation of semi-subliminal advertising.
Very few of the psychology textbooks and other books
listed in the bibliography focus specifically on imagery in advertising.
Conversely, books devoted to Consumer Behaviour (Consumer Behavior,
if you are American) and/or Advertising contain very little information
on the subject of visual perception and cognitive psychology.
As a result, when authors from either discipline refer to the subject
of Subliminal Advertising they
mostly regurgitate simplistic if not erroneous statements on the topic.
Some of these are discussed on the page devoted to The
Experts.
To obtain the type of information that focuses on
the interface between visual perception and advertising one needs
to read a number of reasonably specialized books. The Bibliography ultimately will be useful to help the
non-specialist viewer identify books of interest as they are organized
by topic and annotations will be added at a later date.


6. What can I do to resist the influence
of semi-subliminal advertising?
There is nothing quite like education to insulate one from
attempts at persuasion. Even if you cannot resist the influence
of the ads you can at least argue against the use of the technique
and avoid using the products of the companies who use it.
Inform yourself about the types of techniques used, the
types of products that make use of semi-subliminal techniques and
the companies who use semi-subliminal techniques. These
web pages provide viewers with a valuable set of resources that can
be used to inform oneself and other interested parties about this
unethical means of influence.
To take this process a stage further, in order to root out
the use of this and other unethical and manipulative advertising practices,
one can raise these issues with the companies concerned. One can also
encourage advertising associations to enforce their guidelines on
ethical advertising more rigorously. And, of course, one can obtain
the assistance of political representatives in putting pressure on
those who initiate and make use of semi-subliminal techniques in advertising.
The page devoted to Links
to other sites provides some links to associated Web Sites and
organizations.


7. How does semi-subliminal advertising
work? And is it effective?
The author has to confess this, at present, is an unanswerable
question. Whilst there are numerousf examples of
semi-subliminal advertising, as these Web Pages demonstrate, there
is no evidence in the public domain to indicate that such advertising
is effective (but see the end of this section and the answer to Question
20).
At best, one can extrapolate from psychological experiments.
These experiments show clear evidence that 'subliminal' material around
the borderline of visual perceptual ability i.e. images and messages
that can sometimes be perceived or noticed, does manage to influence
thoughts, dreams, written reports, experimental responses and test
results, etc. However, no experiment, as yet, has
demonstrated any change in behaviour. Experiments would
also seem to indicate that such ads prime generic thought processes
and drives e.g. semi-subliminal ads for a specific soft drink would
prime the need to drink rather than a preference for any specific
branded product. These results may therefore indicate there is a two
stage process at work. First, drive related behaviour is primed by
exposure to semi-subliminal advertising. Secondly, once a desire for
a drink or some other product is primed, a specific brand needs to
be selected. This selection would be made on the basis to exposure
to promotional activities in general and other preferences. If this
two stage processes did operate, it would be the second of these two
processes that was relied upon by commercial users of 'subliminal'
imagery if they needed justification for their attempts to unethically
influence consumers. The secondary or 'subliminal' element would not,
in itself, produce a preference for a specific product.
However, one needs to appreciate other factors related to
extraplation from experimental conclusions as there are undoubtedly
a number of reasons why short term experiments do not immediately
influence behaviour. Advertising in general, of course,
hardly ever brings about instant changes in behaviour. Sutherland's
book on Advertising likens advertising to the influence of a feather. Like a feather dropping
on your head, each ad has no specific influence. But, cumulatively,
they 'add up' to justify the existence of a multi billion dollar industry
- and, of course, a ton of feathers weighs as much as a ton of steel.
This 'additive process' may also underpin a case for presuming
that the semi-subliminal elements in ads are influential. Each
semi-subliminal ad has no specific influence. But, over time, the
(unconscious) associations that are formed between semi-subliminal
images and ideas associated with specific products may accumulate.
Ultimately they may influence choices regarding these and other products
without the person making the decision being aware of the process.
Experiments conducted by psychologists throw no light on
this long term process as most experiments are 'one-off' studies,
at a specific point in time. Evidence concerning the effectiveness
of secondary imagery and how it 'works' is undoubtedly only
to be found within the records of the companies who have used (and
evaluated) such techniques over a period of time.
Exemplars of the companies who might hold the type of information
that would allow consumers insight into whether or not semi-subliminal
advertising works are the tobacco companies. They have used such techniques
more assiduously and over a longer period of time than any other companies
noted by the author. Ask Philip Morris Inc. or R.J.Reynolds!
If any single person exists who could answer the question
'How does semi-subliminal advertising work' then they are to be found
among the employees of these two companies and their advertising agencies.
Since this web page was constructed additional research has
been carried out by the author and a number of collaborators. One
undergraduate student carried out a study with the semi-subliminal
elements of Marlboro ads. His study showed that there was a preference
for ads with subliminal elements. More recently the author and a colleague
carried out a more complex study comparing responses to extracts of
the 'subliminal' features of ads. This study compared images with
and without 'subliminal' elements but also included a control condition
in the study to assess the influence of simple change i.e. alteration
of a non'subliminal aspect of the image. The study thus had three
conditions. A) Extracts from ads containing semi-subliminal elements.
B) The same extracts with the semi-subliminal elements altered. C)
The same extracts with a 'neutral' section, comparable in size and
colouration to the semi-subliminal element, altered. This arrangement
allows one to conclude whether or not change alone brings about different
judgments or whether it is the semi-subliminal elements that are influential.
The results showed that subjects responded similarly to the
two sets of extracts containing semi-subliminal components i.e. varatiations
A and B. Both sets A and B were judged differently from the extracts
in condition C, the set where a neutral area of the ad had been modified.
Given that such ads are highly unlikely to have been produced
to trigger negative reactions to the products involved, it seems reasonable
to conclude that semi-subliminal ads are constructed influence consumers
in a manner leading to additional consumption (or interest in the
product). The extent to which this is possible has yet to be determined.
Similarly, it is still necessary to determine which type of person
responds to such secondary imager and the nature of the embedded elements
they respond to. Given the unexpected ease with which the author and
his colleagues carried out this study using real and not simulated
ads one can bet ones bottom dollar that such information, and much
more, is stored away in the vaults of the tobacco companies and their
advertising agencies. [ This last paragraph added 6th March, 2001.
See the answer to Question 20 for additional informati.]


8. Who is influenced by semi-subliminal
advertising?
Given the very limited amount of research that has a direct
bearing on the effectiveness of semi-subliminal advertising it is
impossible to say who, if anyone, is influenced by it. However,
by extrapolating from research focusing on conditioning, advertising,
visual perception - including subliminal perception - it would seem
that the majority of individuals are susceptible to some degree.
There is also a possibility that young males are more susceptible
than other groups.
This does not mean that anyone will immediately respond to
a specific semi-subliminal image in an ad and rush to buy the goods
or service being advertised. Acknowledging that we are
all influenced by secondary imagery is simply another way of
stating that we will 'take on board' the semi-subliminal information
if we are not visually impaired. This occurs in the same manner that
we perceive any other visual aspect of the surrounding world.
We will then 'draw conclusions' on the basis of whatever we have perceived,
preconsciously and consciously, including any semi-subliminal information
contained within an ad, and what we already know. Then, we may possibly
respond then or at some future date.
If we do respond in accord with the desires of the ad agency
and its client, our response will not simply be on the basis of the
semi-subliminal information in their ads. Any behaviour will be the
result of all that we know about the product and the various values,
associations, implications, and opinions associated with the product
and its use. This array of knowledge will most likely have accumulated
over the years and it is unlikely to be changed by any specific embedded
element in an ad, regardless of how powerful or emotive the secondary imagery might be if presented at a level where conscious attention
could be paid to it.
The most pertinent research would seem to indicate that if
mental associations are to be formed between semi-subliminal information
and a product then ad viewers have to be partially aware of the embedded
imagery. This evidence, from studies in conditioning,
would indicate that less than 1% of those who view such ads would
perceive the embedded message or image. Even when they
perceive the embedded message, it is likely this aspect of the ad
will only attract a minimal amount of attention. It will thus quickly
be driven from consciousness by more salient information.
Although quickly forgotten, the important point to note is that the
semi-subliminal information will not have been ignored. Like
any other sensory input, whether visual, auditory, tactile, or whatever,
that information, once stored in memory, may ultimately become a factor
in decision making.
With less than one percent of an audience perceiving an association,
it would seem that a much smaller proportion of individuals will be
influenced in their purchasing decisions. However, it
is noteworthy that the most assiduous users of secondary imagery
are extremely large, multinational, corporations. They have been making
use of these techniques for many years. The constant drip, drip,
drip of secondary imagery in their ads may have a cumulative
effect on susceptible individuals, especially younger individuals
who are less set in their ways of thinking.
With alcohol and tobacco products there is also some evidence
to indicate that those who are most responsive to this type of advertising
are young, extrovert, males. These are the types of individuals who
constitute a major segment of the market for these products. Extrapolating
from this data one can readily imagine that long term advertising
strategies using semi-subliminal advertising may pay dividends.
The semi-subliminal aspects of ads that are not consciously
perceived may help in forming strong - but irrational - mental bonds
between emotions and specific products, if not brands. There
may also be dividends for large companies in using secondary imagery to trigger particular emotional responses if these responses
are related to consumption. Again, tobacco and alcoholic drinks
provide the ideal products for such a strategy as consumption of these
products is often associated with attempts to manage emotional states.
In conclusion, everyone is potentially susceptible to information
presented at a semi-subliminal level. Some individuals are undoubtedly
more susceptible than others. With any specific ad, regardless
of the extent of embedded imagery, there is little for anyone to be
worried about. But this may not be the case when ads have consistently
conveyed semi-subliminal messages for many years, as has been the
case with tobacco ads.
Some consumers may simply be responding to the beat of the
ad agencies muted drums under the illusion that they are making a
free choice. Others may be thoroughly confused if they have
internalized semi-subliminal images and messages running counter to
common sense and rational decision making. The latter group
of individuals may feel little control over the external world when
their moods are regularly influenced by the content
of ads rather than more readily appraised aspects of their environment.


9. Are semi-subliminal images simply
figments of the imagination?
They might be in some circumstances but in general the answer
to this question has to be a definite NO. An illustrated set
of comments can be found on the pages associated with the Index
of psychology pages Only psychotic individuals are likely to consistently
perceive something that does not exist. Individuals capable of strongly
projecting their ideas may also perceive images that do not
exist. In the majority of cases the author is convinced that perceiving
semi-subliminal elements in ads relies upon perceiving cues that do
exist in the real world. Ads with elements very close to the borderline
of perceptual ability are likely to produce ambiguous and ambivalent
judgements and imagination and expectations may play a larger role
than normal and lead to initial conclusions that do not reflect what
is ultimately consciously perceived.
The illustration on the left is intended to demonstrate that
we can see what doesn't exist if the appropriate visual cues are presented.
The 'bright triangle' that is 'seen' in the centre of this illustration
does not, in fact, exist. The colouring of this 'brighter' triangle
is actually idential to what is 'seen' as the background. The differential
brightness is 'constructed' by the visual and perceptual system on
the basis of visual input and the application of existing knowledge
of how the world 'looks' i.e. objects that are closer generally appear
brighter.
Artists and advertising personnel know only too well that
presenting appropriate cues can lead people to 'see' what is only
suggested. Technically one should refer to perception rather than
seeing: seeing is the function of the eyes, perception is the outcome
after what is seen is integrated with what is known, anticipated or
expected. The resulting percept is thus more than the initial stimuli
that impinges on the eyes. Manipulative advertising therefore has
the potential to be influential even if there is nothing to be 'seen',
provided care is taken to embed ambiguous and semi-subliminal elements
into the adverts.


10. Why should advertisers include
images in adverts if they are not noticed?
The average layperson without any knowledge of psychology
reasonably assumes that their responses only occur when information
is noticed. Whilst this assumption is largely true, when
we are paying conscious attention to the world around us, it does
not hold when we are not paying conscious attention.
A few simple examples make this clear. Everyone,
car drivers in particular, can recall periods when they have travelled
considerable distances from A to B without any recall of the period
in between. Effectively, we have operated on autopilot.
Using unconscious, automatic, decision making in response to environmental
cues drivers function quite effectively but they often have no conscious
awareness of what occurred or what controlled their behaviour.
Again, when we speak, we normally do not have control over
the grammatical structure of our statements. If
we attempted to maintain conscious control over our speech it would
be very slow and halting. Instead we rely on automatic,
over learned, mental processes to 'make' the decisions for us.
These decisions occur unconsciously but they are nevertheless crucial
to how we function.
In both these examples it is obvious that psychological processes
can function independently of conscious attention. Similar processes
occur when we view a scene or an advert. We may 'take in' a
scene or an ad holistically, judging what is important and what is
not important almost instantaneously. However, the details of the
scene are not subject to recall.
Ads for example are only viewed for a brief period of time,
usually less than a second. This is about the same amount
of time we spend looking at a scene just before crossing a quiet road.
In neither case do we stop to appraise every individual element of
the scene. We simply glance around, assess the scene as a whole, and
respond appropriately and usually sensibly. It only requires
this glance up and down the road and we 'know' that there is no danger.
Nevertheless we might be hard pressed to tell the colours of the cars
parked by the kerbside, the number of individuals walking down the
sidewalk, whether the traffic lights were on green, and so on.
When there are semi-subliminal elements in ads they are mentally
assessed in the same manner as any other aspect of the overall ad.
However, the automatic judgmental processes that take place lead us
to focus conscious attention on the primary meaning of the ad.
It is this we become aware of. All other aspects of the
ad have seemingly been ignored. However, experimental
studies by psychologists indicate that what happens is more complex
than this. Even although we may only recall a small proportion of
the information contained in a picture or ad, at the moment we first
look at the scene all of the information is seemingly equally available
for access i.e. any aspect of a scene can be recalled if the appropriate
questions are asked. In other words everything about the scene has
been processed by the brain. Simply because it does not reach consciousness
does not mean it has not been analysed and stored in memory.
For more information on this process see the relevant section of the
pages devoted to Imagination
and Psychology.
A typical example of this process in action can be noted
in the Palmolive shower gel ad below.
Normally one would simply give this ad
a passing glance. Dozens of my students have looked at this
and another similar ad for the same product. Their assumption
is that the ad on the left presents the image of a woman within the
context of a lava walled shower room. On the wall of the shower
is a small recess hold containing Palmolive shower gel. The
reason they reach this conclusion is because attention is focused
on the ad overall and the colourful representations of Palmolive soap.
Relatively few individuals, even after they have begun to
pay conscious attention to the ad, notice that the arm in the forefront
of the ad is most likely that of a man, rather than the arm of a woman.
There are two people in this shower.
Including such a features in an ad is pointless if no-one
is influenced by it. So why should they be there? Consider
what ideas could be triggered by such a combination of images: a man
and a woman in a shower scene. These ideas could range from
comfort and reassurance, if these qualities are associated with a
strong arm 'surrounding' oneself, through sexual ideas arising from
the male/female combination, to the extreme (and undesirable from
the producers viewpoint) of 'slasher' movies. The latter might conceivably
be triggered in circumstances where a viewer had recently seen the
shower scene in Hitchcock's Psycho or the recent remake.
Each set of associations triggered by the elements in the
ad are unique to the individual viewer. However, there are sufficient
common elements to justify an ad agency incorporating this type of
semi-subliminal element. If such an ad influences some individuals,
and the ad is produced on a cost effective basis, then it makes commercial
sense for the makers of Palmolive.
If such ads are evaluated by the agencies responsible, and
the results of such evaluations provide the justification for such
ads, then it would seem that unconscious decision making, or to be
more accurate, preconscious decision making, may respond to this male/female
combination. The fact that it is an unlikely combination, given that
there are no other cues relating to a man in the ad, will not attract
sufficient attention to lead to conscious appreciation of the more
complex message. What will be consciously appreciated will be the
simpler, common-sense, message. Conscious appreciation will simply
register that there was a woman in a shower. The incomplete
male would be 'overlooked'. But for the 'male' to be consciously overlooked
some unconscious process had to discount the likelihood of the arm
being that of a man.
Presumably the outcome of such combinations of elements in
ads will be to provide the product with an aura of sexiness, comfort
and reassurance. These will supplement any claims made regarding personal
cleanliness and the avoidance of socially unacceptable bodily odours,
etc.
In essence, it is deemed essential for semi-subliminal images
to be noticed for them to have some influence. If semi-subliminal
elements were noticed there may be a backlash because of an associated
awareness of the manipulative intent of the advertiser, and knowledge
of their failure to adhere to ethical advertising standards.


11. How can I detect semi-subliminal
images?
Practice. Practice. Practice. And self reflection
upon the outcome of ones activities in observing and analysing ads.
There is no easy answer to this question. It also has to
be acknowledged that some individuals will have difficulty noting
the existence of semi-subliminal elements in ads. They may vociferously
deny that such ads exist. But there are some individuals who can never
'see' the various elements in visual illusions offering two different
interpretations. Psychology textbooks and books on visual perception, visual
illusions and mind games usually offer a number of interesting,
classic, examples of visual illusions. And the page devoted
to ads from the archives focusses on Jack
Haberstroh and his approach to a classic semi-subliminal ad. A more
obvious example is illustrated below on an image of a 20p UK postage
stamp. Others can be found on the Psychology
page.
The primary
element of this UK stamp is the image of a cow. Superimposed
on the cow, instead of the usual randomly distributed black and white
colouring, is the outline of a doctor giving an injection to a young
child. Note that there are two ways of 'seeing' the central
aspect of this stamp. With normal vision it is not possible to perceive
both images at the same time and it requires conscious effort to change
the focus of attention from one to the other of these images. One
either perceives the cow or the embedded figures, not both.
If one has the mental facility to 'extract' images from their
background and perceive these as meaningful entities, as with the
cow and doctor example, then there are various sources of useful examples
of semi-subliminal art in ads. The present Subliminal World Web Pages,
the books of Wilson Key and the forthcoming book of the author, together
with some sites on the WWW, provide a rich source of examples. Check
those which are listed on the psychology pages and the links page
for information. Viewing these sites and the current site should offer
insight into the techniques in use. If you can start
with a collection of ads for the same product, rather than a specific
ad, this is a useful bonus. One can often identify similarities
or themes running across a number of ads, even although they may be
difficult to identify when one is 'caught up' in making sense of a
specific ad.
Viewing any ad requires a degree of reflection. Our natural
inclinations and a lifetime of experience lead us to recognize things
for what they are. To be more accurate, we recognize them for what
we expect them to be. Any aberrations in an ad are often
overlooked, especially when they are carefully disguised. This was
the case with the semi-subliminal example of the arm in the Palmolive
ads discussed above. By modifying the colour of the features
in the ad the normal cues to judgement disappeared. These would have
been more readily apparent if the ad had been in colour. Variations
in skin tone and hair colouring would have made the mans arm noticeably
different from that of the woman.
To break free from this 'mould' of experience one needs to
practice using ads where the different elements have been identified.
One can then progress to testing out other likely sources of semi-subliminal
ads. To produce a high 'hit rate' of successes one ought
to start with tobacco advertising. But certain problems need to be
allowed for.
One should beware of projecting ideas onto the images that
are being looked at. And one should become aware that projection
is easier if suggestions have previously been offered as to what is
likely to be perceived. This process of biasing judgements is referred
to as priming. Just as water can be used to prime a pump so suggestions
can be used to prime judgements. Some suggestions
to help avoid being influenced and 'seeing' semi-subliminal advertising
everywhere are noted in psychndx.htm
See also the entries under Projection
and Pareidolia in the glossary.


12. Are there any books on the subject
of semi-subliminal advertising?
The Bibliography includes a complete
list of all the books pertinent to the subject of what is known as
subliminal advertising. However there are no entries on the
subject semi-subliminal advertising. The few existing books focussing
on 'subliminal' advertising address a combination of subliminal audio
and semi-subliminal visual material. The authors forthcoming book
Sexy,
Subliminal and Deadly?: The Psychology of Manipulative Advertising
will be the only book devoted to the subject of semi-subliminal advertising
as defined on this site. The reason for these apparent disparities
are as follows.
For many years, the literature on 'subliminal' advertising
focused on all forms of difficult to perceive communications as if
they all shared the same characteristics. As a result a useful and
meaningful terminology, capable of distinguishing between different
types of subliminal and semi-subliminal communications, was never
developed. The resulting generalized terminology led to
the topic of semi-subliminal advertising being erroneously included
under the general rubric of subliminal advertising. Truly
subliminal advertising i.e. advertising that cannot be detected, may
exist. However, it is noticeable that all of the illustrations offered
in all of the books devoted to the so-called field of subliminal advertising
can be perceived by the majority of individuals with normal vision.
As the controversial elements within these ads can be perceived, the
ads cannot be truly subliminal. They can only be considered
to be semi-subliminal.
For a variety of practical and scientific reasons, discussed
in some detail in Sexy, Subliminal and Deadly?: The Psychology of Manipulative
Advertising (in preparation), semi-subliminal adverts should not
be labelled as subliminal. To do so defeats the interests
of organizations and individuals interested in protecting the rights
of consumers. The use of erroneous terminology also plays into the
hands of unethical businesses. These businesses currently enjoy the
freedom to make use of semi-subliminal advertising because critical
attention is deflected towards the (possibly non-existent) arena of
subliminal advertising. By encouraging their critics to label
all ads that contain semi-subliminal embedded messages or images as
subliminal lets ads agencies and their client companies 'off the hook'.
The ad agencies can then justly - but disingenuously - claim that
they are not using subliminal advertising.
See the AAAA
ads and the author's correspondence with the AAAA, IPA and ASA
for perfect examples of how advertising professionals or their creative
artists con the consumer into believing 'black is white'. The views
of the Advertising Standards Authority and Institute of Practitioners
in Advertising from the UK and theAmerican Association of Advertising
Agencies can be found on ASA.htm , IPA.htm
and Classkey.htm and AAAA.htm
respectively.


13. What is manipulative advertising?
All subliminal advertising and semi-subliminal advertising
can be considered manipulative. In each case some elements of ads
are designed to influence consumers without consumers having any possibility
of rejecting that information. It is, after all, rather difficult
to consciously appraise an ad if it contains emotive images and messages
that one cannot consciously perceive. However, although all semi-subliminal
(and subliminal ads if they exist) are manipulative, all manipulative
ads are not semi-subliminal or subliminal in nature.
It is possible to attempt to manipulate consumers
values, beliefs, ideas and behaviour using images and messages that
are quite clearly visible. For example, visualize a two page
magazine ad containing the well known phrase Come to Marlboro Country.
This would normally be spread across a two page ad alongside an illustration
of a pack of Marlboro cigarettes. If a reader temporarily perceived
only the initial letters of Come, and the last few of Country, then
they would be 'forced' to temporarily respond to another message (Come'n'try
Marlboro) for the brief period when only the left half of the left
page and the right
half of the right page were visible. This 'message' would be processed
but quickly 'overridden' as the full Marlboro slogan came into focus.
Psychological experiments indicate that what occurs
in such a situation is equivalent to the process that psychologists
call backwards masking. In the backward masking process a second message
obliterates conscious recall of the message that was presented first.
Most importantly, if one is to gain an understanding of how some semi-subliminal
and manipulative advertising works, one has to appreciate that the
first message, despite not being remembered, still had an impact.
The information in the first message was processed and, even though
it cannot be recalled, the information presented in the message can
still influence behaviour such as speech and the completion of word
tests. This is so even when the viewer claims never to have seen the
first message. It seems possible that Philip Morris' ad agency are
attempting the same form of 'brainwashing' with some of their ads.
Other manipulative ads can pull 'emotional strings'
and influence thinking by presenting images that seem to have a clear
cut meaning. However, inherent in ads are artistic elements that provide
secondary meanings to viewers. These are unrelated to the product
and no conscious attributions are likely to be made about their contribution
to understanding the ad. For some examples see the Nescafe and Phoenix
ads on the Ads
of the Month page. Each ad presents a secondary, covert, meaning
related to sexuality in addition to any other meaning.
 
In some cases e.g. one series of Benson and Hedges, the covert and
manipulative message conveyed was about inadequacy in the face of
something bigger, more powerful and more important. What was presented
as big and important was, quite naturally, from the tobacco company's
point of view, Benson and Hedges cigarettes. Those who were deemed
unimportant, demeaned, confused and demoralised, and those whose thoughts
and feelings could cynically be manipulated, were Benson and Hedges
smokers. The smokers (and potential smokers) 'knew' they could not
defeat their habit, nor cope with adversity, and had these ideas bolstered
by the B&H advertising. Viewers may also like to reflect upon
the connotations associated with a more recent B&H campaign, focussing
on colour yellow and what insights this might offer into how B&H
view their customers.
For a more specific classification of different 'types' of manipulative
advertising see either the TopSecret
Page or the Rating Page.


14. What is the difference between
manipulative advertising and semi-subliminal advertising?
Essentially the only real difference between semi-subliminal
advertising and manipulative advertising is one of degree. Semi-subliminal
advertising clearly involves messages and images that are either faint
or small. Manipulative advertising can, as indicated above, involve
images and language that are clearly visible, yet camouflaged. In
both cases, however, the intention is to manipulate thoughts, ideas,
values or behaviour. There is no intention to lead to informed discussion,
to persuade or even to be controversial.


15. Are semi-subliminal and manipulative
advertising unethical?
The author holds the view that such advertising is clearly unethical.
A statement to this effect was also made on behalf
of the American Association of Advertising Agencies in 1981. Such
advertising intends to deny the consumer the right of conscious appraisal.
Such ads do not breach any specific guideline agreed by the Advertising
Standards Association in the United Kingdom but nevertheless breach
the spirit of these guidelines.
The ASA
and AAAA
pages indicate how little attention such organizations are willing
to pay to ethical principles when their 'bread and butter' is provided
by commercial concerns whose sole interest is their profit margin.
The actions of companies such as Philip Morris, R.J.Reynolds-Nabisco
and British American Tobacco have, over the years, shown their disdain
for ethical practices where the consumer is concerned.
There is little likelihood that these organizations. and commercial
concerns will change their ways unless members of the public insist
that consumers be treated as responsible individuals, preferring to
make their own judgements as to the worth of products or services.
Write or e-mail the ASA, AAAA, IPA and other organizations and the
commercial concerns they represent if you feel concerned about the
long term effects of manipulative advertising and the ethical standards
associated with them. Write or e-mail your political representatives,
contact the organizations listed on the links page, decide to boycott
the purchase of all goods produced or promoted by such organizations.
Above all, find out more about such practices and help put a stop
to them before they become a standard aspect of advertising. At present,
manipulative advertising seems to simply represent poor ethical standards
and lack of consideration for members of the public. In future, with
the development of new technologies, it may become more effective,
more manipulative and more difficult to detect.
For
more information about business ethics click here.


16. What is product placement?
Product placements is often assumed to be a form
of subliminal presentation. It is not, given the definition used on
this web site. Product placement is actually a specific practice that
may be considered manipulative but it is not in any sense subliminal.
In product placement, products or brands are displayed
in appropriate, and sometimes inappropriate, contexts on TV shows,
in films, and brand names are used in preference to generic names
in novels, etc. For an example of inappropriate context and use one
need look no further than the extremely generous backing of Hollywood
movie makers by tobacco companies. For a number of years, movie
fans were confronted with a grossly disproportionate number of tobacco
packs, cigarette smokers and advertising billboards on their screens.
These presented impressionable adolescents with a false idea of the
prevalence and social acceptability of smoking. And the widespread
smoking by female movie idols may be a contributory factor in the
increase in smoking among young women in recent years. Such movies
are now having reruns on TV. Tobacco company executives are undoubtedly
gleefully look forward to securing another cohort of impressionable
youngsters as smokers of their products, thanks to the insatiable
need of TV companies to rerun movies, almost regardless of their social
impact.
The cigarette products used in these movies generally
serve no useful part in the storyline. But their use by key characters,
often the hero or heroine, ensures that potential and actual smokers
become aware of smoking as a seemingly risk free, socially acceptable,
habit. Non-smokers, of course, are also intended to be influenced
by the 'socially acceptable' face of smoking.
One wonders how many of the actors who become smokers
to obtain their parts in these movies will die of cancerk. And, in
doing so, follow the long line of Hollywood actors and actresses who
succumbed to cancer long before it was known that smoking kills. One
anti smoking site provides a lengthy list of idols who smoked on screen
and died prematurely because of their smoking out of the limelight.
Unlike the ads discussed on the Subliminal World,
product and brand placement, whether for cigarettes, cars or any other
product, generally requires that a limited degree of attention is
paid to the placement of the product or brand. In addition, for adults,
it is relatively easy to detect such use of products, once one is
aware of the technique. Where children are concerned, such knowledge
may not exist. Even if children had such knowledge it may not provide
much of a defence against the types of information presented in movies.
Associations between products, characters and behaviour are most likely
to be assimilated in an unquestioning manner, as young children are
not as sophisticated as adults in dealing with the machinations of
corporate advertising.

17. What is the difference between
seeing and perception?
'What you see isn't necessarily what you get' is a good way of
summing up the difference between seeing and perception. The eye sees
because it responds to varying light input. However, what we perceive
is a combination of the sensory input into the eye and what we already
know or expect. Anyone who has changed from wearing spectacles with
ordinary lenses to those with varifocal lenses is aware of this interaction.
With the change of sensory input brought about by varifocal lenses
the user has to relearn, to a certain extent, to see things 'properly'.
More extreme cases are evident when individuals who have been blind
have their sight restored. They often find it very difficult to 'see'
because they have not learned how to interpret visual input. In extreme
cases they are so distressed, because they cannot 'make sense' of
what they are 'seeing', that they wish they were blind once again.
Because perception is not the same as seeing, we can therefore
see an incomplete figure, yet perceive it as complete. We can see
a visual illusion that is ambiguous, yet make sense of it. In
the context of semi-subliminal ads this distinction is very important.
It gives viewers, automatically, the ability to make sense of the
nonsensical, to attend to some aspects of an ad and ignore others.
It is rare, nowadays, for a semi-subliminal ad to present a clearly
identifiable figure or message. Even when one has masturbating images
such as detected in a fairly recent Camel ad,
the masturbating figure is small and the action is blurred. Only a
knowledge of human behaviour and language, together with an appreciation
of Camel
ads, and the way in which artists can represent actions in symbolic
ways, leads one to conclude this image is intended to represent masturbation.
However, one has to note that this is an interpretation. One is
not observing behaviour. As with illusions, different interpretations
of exactly the same image or visual stimuli can be made by different
individuals because of their different experiences and expectations.
The ads and works of art illustrated on the Beginnings
pages illustrate this notion quite well. In some instances viewers
will agree with the author, in others they will be uncertain or even
find no indication whatsoever of the phenomenon that are discussed.
Across the whole of the subliminalworld.com/ site there are a
wide range of ads. Some are semi-subliminal, some are simply manipulative.
Some combine both sets of characteristics. Although differences of
opinion are anticipated, especially with members of the advertising
profession and other psychologists, it is expected that, overall,
a sound conclusion can ultimately be drawn in order to clearly demarcate
subliminal advertising from other related issues..


18. What is the academic definition
of subliminal perception?
Rather than give my own views on the subject of subliminal perception,
click
here to view an article in the Encyclopedia of Psychology by Professor
Philip Merikle, University of Waterloo, Canada. Various pages associated
with a course presented at the University of Austion contain information
on this topic and other related subject matter.


19. How effective
is semi-subliminal advertising?
The question of effectiveness has never been accurately
answered. Most authors simply extrapolate from academic studies in
the field of subliminal perception (see experts.htm).
Very few articles consider 'subliminal' advertising. One of the few
summaries of the limited number of studies in this field has been
produced by Ji-Young
Hong at the University of Texas at Austin. Whilst Hong's article
summarises the literature extremely well it actually pays little attention
to the type of ads presented on the subliminal world web site and
presents the standard conclusion ie such advertising is ineffective.
The best one can currently do in the absence of
studies investigating advertising when one is aware of the number
of companies using 'subliminal' ads, is to extrapolate from research
into subliminal perception and more general studies of advertising.
Consideration of the conclusions drawn from studies into subliminal
perception and an awareness of the range and power of the companies
using 'subliminal' techniques leads one to a sceptical conclusion
concerning these two fields of study.
Advertising generally does not have instant effects
on behaviour, it has its effect over a period of time. Subliminal
perception studies likewise do not indicate any instant behavioural
response. However, studies in subliminal perception do indicate that
judgements can be influenced by stimuli that cannot be consciously
perceived. One can thus extrapolate from academic studies to the use
of semi-subliminal content in adverts. Despite the common generalisation
that 'subliminal' and subliminal information does not information
one may be led to conclude that 'subliminal' content in ads might
influence consumers. After all, why should such information be influential
in one context and not in another.
One must, however, acknowledge that the contexts
of 'subliminal' communications in laboratory studies and 'subliminal'
content in advertising are different. Ads contain lots of information
in addition to any secondary image/message. It is argued, though there
is no published evidence indicating this, that the additional information
contained in any normal ad will 'wash out' the impact of any secondary
imagery contained within the boundaries of the ad (or TV commercial).
Additionally, the stimuli used in subliminal perception studies are
generally limited to simple images or messages. Such communications
are thus very simplistic when compared to the complex images presented
in ads.
However, when considering effectiveness ie the
ability of 'subliminal' ads to influence viewers, one can also presume
that ad agencies who use the technique consistently have evaluated
their use - and found them commercially effective. However, given
the lack of public acknowledgement of such use (see the authors correspondence
with the AAAA and the ASA)
one must be cautious in making such assumptions. Even when 'subliminal'
content is used regularly by ad agencies and artists they may simply
be operating on the basis of limited understanding or trying to 'pull
the wool' over their clients' eyes.
Despite these cautionary notes, some studies by
the author and a colleague support the notion that advertising containing
secondary images has a similar impact on viewers as does sublimimal
stimuli. That is to say, the 'subliminal' elements of ads do influence
judgements. Additionally, in less well controlled studies and classroom
observations it seems clear that the complexity of ads does not prevent
the secondary content from similarly influencing judgements. See the
page subexpt.htm for further information
and webbmp2.htm for copies of the experimental
images.
Whilst the effect of the embedded elements on judgements
is weak, one must not forget that the impact of most advertising is
also relatively weak - only sales and special offers tend to have
consumers beating a path to the door of retailers. Most everyday consumer
items are advertised to keep the product 'in the mind' of consumers,
rather than to have any radical impact on immediate consumption behaviour.
Only sales figures, in general, indicate whether or not advertising
campaigns have been effective.
So, in this respect, there is only a difference
in degree between the impact of standard, overt, advertising and the
covert aspects of advertising involving secondary or 'subliminal'
images. In both instances, information can be acquired by 'osmosis'
rather than by conscious consideration of advertising or promotional
activities. It thus seems, despite the protestations of the advertising
community to the contrary, semi-subliminal ads are likely to work
on the same basis as conventional advertising, though possibly achieving
less of an impact ie influencing fewer people.
Where secondary images may be most effective is
in swaying the undecided customer, in triggering emotional reactions,
and making a difference when a large number of individuals are exposed
to a message. Take as an example the RATS
commercial used in the Bush Presidential campaign in 2001. This was
deemed to be ineffective - because it was easily noticed. Had this
been pitched at a much lower level of intensity it may have helped
'nudge' some undecided voters into the Bush camp. And one might also
note in passing that such an ad may have also have had some impact
on those individuals with little preference for either party who were
watching TV at the time but were not 'paying attention'. In other
words, the information content may have been processed without any
conscious attention by some viewers who were not focussing on TV but
nevertheless 'saw' the image on screen.
TV commercials with related properties, some semi-subliminal
in nature, others containing covert messages favouring one party rather
than the other, were produced in the UK during the period of the 1992
UK General Election. These were, in some cases, noted at the time
by the author as being biased but their potential importance was overlooked
until he was reminded of their existance by Philip Brachi. Phil presents
an illustrated talk on the subject of The Compliant Society. He drew
the authors attention to various TV commercials of the period he remembered
seeing but not paid undue attention to, as subliminal advertising
was not at that time a prime research interest. Check out Phil's developing
web site, spillingthebeans.com, for further information. An additional
page regarding these commercials will be presented on the subliminal
world site in due course.


20.
Where does product placement fit into discussions of subliminal advertising?
In line with the broader definition
of subliminal advertising noted in Question 1, many
commentators consider product placement a form of subliminal presentation.
This position is held simply because the products tend to go unnoticed
when they are presented on TV or move screens. However, simply focusing
attention on the relevant aspect of the programme indicates that the
products are very far from being presented in a subliminal manner
if one applies the more rigorous definition used by psychologists.
Product placement generally leads
to the presentation or use of products in films or TV programmes.
The products are not disguised in any way, nor are they intended to
be completely overlooked. However, as the products are presented in
such a manner that little or no conscious attention is paid to them
- they are simply part of the fantasy world that is being observed
- any information relating to them may be processed unconsciously.
The unconscious processing of information should not be considered
the equivalent of subliminally presented information although some
information regarding both forms of information (product placement
and subliminal stimuli) may be internalised. Whilst the internal,
psychological, processes may be the same in both instances, the external
stimuli are different. To equate them would be equivalent to saying
that food and oxygen are the same because they are both necessary
for life.
Product placement leads to some rather
insidious practices. A particularly obnoxious practice is having lead
actors or actresses in movies smoke, when smoking is neither necessary
nor appropriate for the character or storyline. In such instances,
although the term subliminal message might be used, it is actually
the promotion of an association between what is deemed glamorous or
desirable and cigarettes that is important. Think of this as classical
conditioning, in which one item (cigarettes) is consistently paired
with another (glamorous movie stars or aspects of behaviour deemed
desirable to disaffected youngsters or those attempting to develop
an independent personality e.g. rebellion against society, family).
The glamour of the movies 'rubs off' onto the mundane tobacco product
and these become an unjustified 'cool' product for impressionable
youngsters. Tobacco companies have often placed their products in
movies and paid for stars to promote their products without acknowledging
their involvement.
Numerous academic, magazine and newspaper
articles have discussed this topic and part of an article containing
some relevant academic references can be found by clicking
here. To obtain your own evidence you only need to consider the
extent to which you see smoking depicted in repeat movies on any TV
channel. Smoking is not a minority habit with lead characters, it
seemingly is close to the norm. Prevalence of smoking is not the only
gross distortion of reality, films - like adverts the world over -
present smoking as if it were non-addictive, problem free, socially
desirable, even healthy. So much for socially responsible behaviour
on the part of tobacco companies and their shareholders.

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